Professor Wolfram Schultz University positionProfessor of Neuroscience DepartmentsDepartment of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience InstitutesBehavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute Home pagehttps://research.pdn.cam.ac.uk/staff/s... (personal home page) Research ThemesInterestsOur group is interested to relate the mechanics of brain activity to measurable behaviour. We combine neurophysiological, imaging and behavioural techniques to investigate the neural correlates of goal-directed. We are interested in outcome value (in particular reward) signals in specific brain structures such as dopamine neurons, striatum, frontal cortex and amygdala. These rapid, global, evaluative and supervising neural signals may play a role in decision-making and choice behaviour. In investigating these outcome-coding mechanisms we try to establish a common biological basis for animal learning theory, microeconomic utility and game theories, and behavioural ecology. The larger background is to consider the brain in its capacity for processing reward information as an essential organ for assuring the fitness for survival in an evolutionary framework.  Rewards Click image to view full-size Research Focus
EquipmentBehavioural analysis Electrophysiological recording techniques Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Collaborators
Associated News Items
Key publicationsO'Neill M, Schultz W (2010), “Coding of reward risk distinct from reward value by orbitofrontal neurons” Neuron 68: 789-800 Tobler PN, Fiorillo CD, Schultz W (2005), “Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons.” Science 307(5715):1642-5 Details Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2003), “Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons” Science 299:1898-1902 Waelti P, Dickinson A, Schultz W (2001), “Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory.” Nature 412(6842):43-8 Details Tremblay L, Schultz W (1999), “Relative reward preference in primate orbitofrontal cortex.” Nature 398(6729):704-8 Details Schultz W, Dayan P, Montague PR (1997), “A neural substrate of prediction and reward.” Science 275(5306):1593-9 Details Publications2020Ferrari-Toniolo S, Bujold P, Schultz W (2020), “Compliance with the continuity axiom of Expected Utility Theory supports utility maximization in monkeys” BioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.18.953950 2019Al-Mohammad A, Schultz W (2019), “Let a monkey do your bidding: Reward valuation in an auction-like mechanism” BioRxiv http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2019.12.11.872564 Ferrari-Toniolo S, Bujold P, Schultz W (2019), “Probability distortion depends on choice sequence in rhesus monkeys” J Neurosci 39: 2915-2929 Grabenhorst F, Báez-Mendoza R, Genest W, Deco G, Schultz W (2019), “Primate amygdala neurons simulate decision processes of social partners” Cell Grabenhorst* F, Tsutsui* KI, Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2019), “Primate prefrontal neurons signal economic risk derived from the statistics of recent reward experience” eLife 8: e44838 Pastor-Bernier A, Stasiak A, Schultz W (2019), “Orbitofrontal signals for two-component choice options comply with indifference curves of Revealed Preference Theory” Nat Comm 10: 4885 Pastor-Bernier A, Volkmann K, Stasiak A, Grabenhorst F, Schultz W (2019), “Single-dimensional human revealed stochastic preferences for multi-dimensional economic choice options” BioRxiv http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/832881 Schultz W (2019), “Recent advances in understanding the role of phasic dopamine activity” F1000 2017Brzosko Z, Zannone S, Schultz W, Clopath C, Paulsen O (2017), “Sequential neuromodulation of Hebbian plasticity offers mechanism for effective reward-based navigation” eLife 6:e27756 Diederen KMJ, Ziauddeen H, Vestergaard M, Spencer T, Schultz W, Fletcher P (2017), “Dopamine modulates adaptive prediction error coding in the human midbrain and striatum” J Neurosci 37: 1708-1720 Pastor-Bernier A, Plott CR, Schultz W (2017), “Monkeys choose as if maximizing utility compatible with basic principles of revealed preference theory” PNAS E114: 1766-E1775 Schultz W, Stauffer WR, Lak A (2017), “The phasic dopamine signal maturing: from reward via behavioural activation to formal economic utility” Curr Op Neurobiol 43: 139-148 2016Báez-Mendoza R, Schultz W (2016), “Performance error-related activity in monkey striatum during social interactions” Sci Reports 6: 37199 Báez-Mendoza R, van Coeverden C, Schultz W (2016), “A neuronal reward inequity signal in primate striatum” J Neurophysiol 115: 68-79 Diederen K, Spencer T, Vestergaard MD, Fletcher P, Schultz W (2016), “Adaptive prediction error coding in the human midbrain and striatum facilitates behavioral adaptation and learning efficiency” Neuron 90: 1127-1138 Genest W, Stauffer WR, Schultz W (2016), “Utility functions predict variance and skewness risk preferences in monkeys” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 113: 8402-8407 Grabenhorst* F, Hernadi* I, Schultz W (2016), “Primate amygdala neurons evaluate the progress of self-defined economic choice sequences” eLife 5: e18731 Lak A, Stauffer WR, Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine neurons learn relative chosen value from probabilistic rewards” eLife 5: e18044 Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine reward prediction error signalling: a two-component response” Nat Rev Neurosci 17: 183-195 Stauffer WR, Lak A, Yang A, Borel M, Paulsen O, Boyden E, Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine neuron-specific optogenetic stimulation in Rhesus macaques” Cell 166: 1564-1571 Tsutsui* KI, Grabenhorst* F, Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2016), “A dynamic code for economic object valuation in prefrontal cortex neurons” Nat Comm 7: 12554 Zangemeister* L, Grabenhorst* F, Schultz W (2016), “Neural basis for economic saving strategies in human amygdala-prefrontal reward circuits” Curr Biol 26: 3004-3013 2015Brzosko Z, Schultz W, Paulsen O (2015), “Retroactive modulation of spike timing-dependent plasticity by dopamine” eLife 4: e09685 Diederen KMJ, Schultz W (2015), “Scaling prediction errors to reward variability benefits error-driven learning in humans” J Neurophysiol 114: 1628-1640 Hernadi* I, Grabenhorst* F, Schultz W (2015), “Planning activity for internally generated reward goals in monkey amygdala neurons” Nat Neurosci 18 Schultz W (2015), “Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data” Physiol Rev 95: 853-951 Schultz W, Carelli RM, Wightman RM (2015), “Phasic dopamine signals: from subjective reward value to formal economic utility” Curr Op Behav Sci 5: 147-154 Stauffer WR, Lak A, Bossaerts P, Schultz W (2015), “Economic choices reveal probability distortion in macaque monkeys” J Neurosci 35: 3146-3154 Vestergaard MD, Schultz W (2015), “Choice mechanisms for past, temporally extended outcomes” Proc Roy Soc B 282: 20141766, 1810 2014Bermudez MA, Schultz W (2014), “Timing in reward and decision processes.” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 369(1637):20120468 Details Medic N, Ziauddeen H, Vestergaard MD, Henning E, Schultz W, Farooqi IS, Fletcher PC (2014), “Dopamine modulates the neural representation of subjective value of food in hungry subjects” J Neurosci 34: 16877-16889 O'Neill M, Schultz W (2014), “Economic risk coding by single neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex.” J Physiol Paris Details Stauffer WR, Lak A, Schultz W (2014), “Dopamine reward prediction error responses reflect marginal utility” Curr Biol 2491-2500 2013Báez-Mendoza R, Schultz W (2013), “The role of the striatum in social behavior.” Front Neurosci 7:233 Details 2012Ariansen JL, Heien ML, Hermans A, Phillips PE, Hernadi I, Bermudez MA, Schultz W, Wightman RM (2012), “Monitoring extracellular pH, oxygen, and dopamine during reward delivery in the striatum of primates.” Front Behav Neurosci 6:36 Details Miyapuram KP, Tobler PN, Gregorios-Pippas L, Schultz W (2012), “BOLD responses in reward regions to hypothetical and imaginary monetary rewards.” Neuroimage 59(2):1692-9 Details Schultz W (2012), “Risky dopamine.” Biol Psychiatry 71(3):180-1 Details 2011Schultz W (2011), “Potential vulnerabilities of neuronal reward, risk, and decision mechanisms to addictive drugs.” Neuron 69(4):603-17 Details Schultz W (2011), “Potential vulnerabilities of neuronal reward, risk, and decision mechanisms to addictive drugs” Neuron 69: 603-617 Schultz W, O'Neill M, Tobler PN, Kobayashi S (2011), “Neuronal signals for reward risk in frontal cortex.” Ann N Y Acad Sci 1239:109-17 Details 2010Burke CJ, Tobler PN, Schultz W, Baddeley M (2010), “Striatal BOLD Response Reflects the Impact of Herd Information on Financial Decisions.” Front Hum Neurosci 4:48 Details Kobayashi S, Pinto de Carvalho O, Schultz W (2010), “Adaptation of reward sensitivity in orbitofrontal neurons” J Neurosci 30: 534-544 Kobayashi S, Pinto de Carvalho O, Schultz W (2010), “Adaptation of reward sensitivity in orbitofrontal neurons.” J Neurosci 30(2):534-44 Details Kobayashi S, Schultz W, Sakagami M (2010), “Operant conditioning of primate prefrontal neurons.” J Neurophysiol 103(4):1843-55 Details Nomoto K, Schultz W, Watanabe T, Sakagami M (2010), “Temporally extended dopamine responses to perceptually demanding reward-predictive stimuli.” J Neurosci 30(32):10692-702 Details O'Neill M, Schultz W (2010), “Coding of reward risk by orbitofrontal neurons is mostly distinct from coding of reward value.” Neuron 68(4):789-800 Details Schultz W (2010), “Subjective neuronal coding of reward: temporal value discounting and risk.” Eur J Neurosci 31(12):2124-35 Details Schultz W (2010), “Dopamine signals for reward value and risk: basic and recent data.” Behav Brain Funct 6:24 Details 2009Christopoulos GI, Tobler PN, Bossaerts P, Dolan RJ, Schultz W (2009), “Neural correlates of value, risk, and risk aversion contributing to decision making under risk.” J Neurosci 29(40):12574-83 Details 2008Fiorillo CD, Newsome WT, Schultz W (2008), “The temporal precision of reward prediction in dopamine neurons.” Nat Neurosci Details Hare TA, O'Doherty J, Camerer CF, Schultz W, Rangel A (2008), “Dissociating the role of the orbitofrontal cortex and the striatum in the computation of goal values and prediction errors.” J Neurosci 28(22):5623-30 Details Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2008), “Influence of reward delays on responses of dopamine neurons” J Neurosci 28: 7837-7846 Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2008), “Influence of reward delays on responses of dopamine neurons.” J Neurosci 28(31):7837-46 Details 2007Tobler PN, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Schultz W (2007), “Learning-related human brain activations reflecting individual finances.” Neuron 54(1):167-75 Details 2006Blatter K, Schultz W (2006), “Rewarding properties of visual stimuli.” Exp Brain Res 168(4):541-6 Details Kobayashi S, Nomoto K, Watanabe M, Hikosaka O, Schultz W, Sakagami M (2006), “Influences of rewarding and aversive outcomes on activity in macaque lateral prefrontal cortex.” Neuron 51(6):861-70 Details Schultz W (2006), “Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward” Ann Rev Psychol 57:87-115 Schultz W (2006), “Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward.” Annu Rev Psychol 57:87-115 Details 2005Cromwell HC, Hassani OK, Schultz W (2005), “Relative reward processing in primate striatum.” Exp Brain Res 162(4):520-5 Details Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2005), “Evidence that the delay-period activity of dopamine neurons corresponds to reward uncertainty rather than backpropagating TD errors.” Behav Brain Funct 1(1):7 Details 2004Schultz W (2004), “Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology.” Curr Opin Neurobiol 14(2):139-47 Details 2003Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2003), “Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons.” Science 299(5614):1898-902 Details Martin-Soelch C, Missimer J, Leenders KL, Schultz W (2003), “Neural activity related to the processing of increasing monetary reward in smokers and nonsmokers.” Eur J Neurosci 18(3):680-8 Details Schultz W, Tremblay L, Hollerman JR (2003), “Changes in behavior-related neuronal activity in the striatum during learning.” Trends Neurosci 26(6):321-8 Details 2001Martin-Soelch C, Chevalley AF, Künig G, Missimer J, Magyar S, Mino A, Schultz W, Leenders KL (2001), “Changes in reward-induced brain activation in opiate addicts.” Eur J Neurosci 14(8):1360-8 Details Martin-Soelch C, Leenders KL, Chevalley AF, Missimer J, Künig G, Magyar S, Mino A, Schultz W (2001), “Reward mechanisms in the brain and their role in dependence: evidence from neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies.” Brain Res Brain Res Rev 36(2-3):139-49 Details Martin-Sölch C, Magyar S, Künig G, Missimer J, Schultz W, Leenders KL (2001), “Changes in brain activation associated with reward processing in smokers and nonsmokers. A positron emission tomography study.” Exp Brain Res 139(3):278-86 Details Schultz W (2001), “Reward signaling by dopamine neurons.” Neuroscientist 7(4):293-302 Details 2000Cavada C, Schultz W (2000), “The mysterious orbitofrontal cortex. foreword” Cereb Cortex 10(3):205 Details Hollerman JR, Tremblay L, Schultz W (2000), “Involvement of basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex in goal-directed behavior.” Prog Brain Res 126:193-215 Details Künig G, Leenders KL, Martin-Sölch C, Missimer J, Magyar S, Schultz W (2000), “Reduced reward processing in the brains of Parkinsonian patients.” Neuroreport 11(17):3681-7 Details 1999Contreras-Vidal JL, Schultz W (1999), “A predictive reinforcement model of dopamine neurons for learning approach behavior.” J Comput Neurosci 6(3):191-214 Details Schultz W (1999), “The Reward Signal of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons.” News Physiol Sci 14:249-255 Details 1998Schultz W (1998), “The phasic reward signal of primate dopamine neurons.” Adv Pharmacol 42:686-90 Details Schultz W, Tremblay L, Hollerman JR (1998), “Reward prediction in primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex.” Neuropharmacology 37(4-5):421-9 Details Suri RE, Schultz W (1998), “Learning of sequential movements by neural network model with dopamine-like reinforcement signal.” Exp Brain Res 121(3):350-4 Details 1997Schultz W (1997), “Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms.” Curr Opin Neurobiol 7(2):191-7 Details 1994Schultz W (1994), “Behavior-related activity of primate dopamine neurons.” Rev Neurol (Paris) 150(8-9):634-9 Details 1993Galbraith GC, Schultz W (1993), “Perceptual adaptation in the vestibulo-ocular system: EEG correlates of spatial and temporal rearrangement.” Percept Mot Skills 77(2):595-608 Details Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T, Romo R, Scarnati E (1993), “Reward-related activity in the monkey striatum and substantia nigra.” Prog Brain Res 99:227-35 Details 1991Apicella P, Scarnati E, Schultz W (1991), “Tonically discharging neurons of monkey striatum respond to preparatory and rewarding stimuli.” Exp Brain Res 84(3):672-5 Details Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W (1991), “Responses of monkey midbrain dopamine neurons during delayed alternation performance.” Brain Res 567(2):337-41 Details 1989Romo R, Schultz W (1989), “Somatosensory input to dopamine neurones of the monkey midbrain: responses to pain pinch under anaesthesia and to active touch in behavioural context.” Prog Brain Res 80:473-8; discussion 465-6 Details Schultz W, Romo R, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Jonsson G, Studer A (1989), “Saccadic reaction times, eye-arm coordination and spontaneous eye movements in normal and MPTP-treated monkeys.” Exp Brain Res 78(2):253-67 Details 1988Schultz W (1988), “MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys: mechanism of action, selectivity and pathophysiology.” Gen Pharmacol 19(2):153-61 Details Studer A, Sundström E, Jonsson G, Schultz W (1988), “Acute electrophysiological and neurochemical effects of administration of MPTP in mice.” Neuropharmacology 27(9):923-31 Details 1987Schultz W, Romo R (1987), “Responses of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons to high-intensity somatosensory stimulation in the anesthetized monkey.” J Neurophysiol 57(1):201-17 Details Studer A, Schultz W (1987), “The catecholamine uptake inhibitor nomifensine depresses impulse activity of dopamine neurons in mouse substantia nigra.” Neurosci Lett 80(2):207-12 Details 1986Schultz W (1986), “Responses of midbrain dopamine neurons to behavioral trigger stimuli in the monkey.” J Neurophysiol 56(5):1439-61 Details Schultz W (1986), “Activity of pars reticulata neurons of monkey substantia nigra in relation to motor, sensory, and complex events.” J Neurophysiol 55(4):660-77 Details Schultz W, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Tsutsumi T, Jonsson G (1986), “The catecholamine uptake blocker nomifensine protects against MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys.” Exp Brain Res 63(1):216-20 Details Schultz W, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Tsutsumi T, Jonsson G (1986), ““The catecholamine uptake blocker nomifensine protects against MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys.” ” Exp Brain Res 63(1):216-20 1985Romo R, Schultz W (1985), “Prolonged changes in dopaminergic terminal excitability and short changes in dopaminergic neuron discharge rate after short peripheral stimulation in monkey.” Neurosci Lett 62(3):335-40 Details Schultz W, Studer A, Jonsson G, Sundström E, Mefford I (1985), “Deficits in behavioral initiation and execution processes in monkeys with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced parkinsonism.” Neurosci Lett 59(2):225-32 Details Toan DL, Schultz W (1985), “Responses of rat pallidum cells to cortex stimulation and effects of altered dopaminergic activity.” Neuroscience 15(3):683-94 Details 1984Aebischer P, Schultz W (1984), “The activity of pars compacta neurons of the monkey substantia nigra is depressed by apomorphine.” Neurosci Lett 50(1-3):25-9 Details Schultz W (1984), “Recent physiological and pathophysiological aspects of Parkinsonian movement disorders.” Life Sci 34(23):2213-23 Details 1982Schultz W (1982), ““Depletion of dopamine in the striatum as an experimental model of Parkinsonism: direct effects and adaptive mechanisms.” ” Prog Neurobiol 18(2-3):121-66 1981Ruffieux A, Schultz W (1981), “[Influence of dopamine on pars reticulata neurones of substantia nigra (author's transl)].” J Physiol (Paris) 77(1):63-9 Details Schultz W, Wiesendanger R, Hess B, Ruffieux A, Wiesendanger M (1981), “The somatotopy of the gracile nucleus in cats with agenesis of a hindfoot.” Exp Brain Res 43(3-4):413-8 Details 1980Ruffieux A, Schultz W (1980), ““Dopaminergic activation of reticulata neurones in the substantia nigra.” ” Nature 285(5762):240-1 1979Schultz W, Montgomery EB Jr, Marini R (1979), “"Proximal limb movements in response to microstimulation of primate dentate and interpositus nuclei mediated by brain-stem structures.” ” Brain 102(1):127-46 1978Schultz W, Ungerstedt U (1978), “Striatal cell supersensitivity to apomorphine in dopamine-lesioned rats correlated to behaviour.” Neuropharmacology 17(6):349-53 Details Schultz W, Ungerstedt U (1978), “A method to detect and record from striatal cells of low spontaneous activity by stimulating the corticostriatal pathway.” Brain Res 142(2):357-62 Details Ungerstedt U, Ljungberg T, Schultz W (1978), “Dopamine receptor mechanisms: behavioral and electrophysiological studies.” Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 19:311-21 Details Zangger P, Schultz W (1978), “The activity of cells of nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis during spontaneous locomotion in the decorticate cat.” Neurosci Lett 7(2-3):95-9 Details 1977Allen GI, Gilbert PF, Marini R, Schultz W, Yin TC (1977), “Integration of cerebral and peripheral inputs by interpositus neurons in monkey.” Exp Brain Res 27(1):81-99 Details Hellweg FC, Schultz W, Creutzfeldt OD (1977), ““Extracellular and intracellular recordings from cat's cortical whisker projection area: thalamocortical response transformation.”” J Neurophysiol 40(3):463-79 1976Schultz W, Galbraith GC, Gottschaldt KM, Creutzfeldt OD (1976), “A comparison of primary afferent and cortical neurone activity coding sinus hair movements in the cat.” Exp Brain Res 24(4):365-81 Details Schultz W, Montgomery EB Jr, Marini R (1976), “Stereotyped flexion of forelimb and hindlimb to microstimulation of dentate nucleus in cebus monkeys.” Brain Res 107(1):151-1 Details |