Professor Wolfram Schultz FRS University positionProfessor of Neuroscience DepartmentsDepartment of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience InstitutesBehavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute Home pagehttps://www.wolframschultz.org (personal home page) Research ThemesInterestsOur group is interested to relate the mechanics of brain activity to measurable behaviour. We combine neurophysiological, imaging and behavioural techniques to investigate the neural correlates of goal-directed. We are interested in outcome value (in particular reward) signals in specific brain structures such as dopamine neurons, striatum, frontal cortex and amygdala. These rapid, global, evaluative and supervising neural signals may play a role in decision-making and choice behaviour. In investigating these outcome-coding mechanisms we try to establish a common biological basis for animal learning theory, microeconomic utility and game theories, and behavioural ecology. The larger background is to consider the brain in its capacity for processing reward information as an essential organ for assuring the fitness for survival in an evolutionary framework.  Rewards Click image to view full-size Research Focus
EquipmentBehavioural analysis Electrophysiological recording techniques Collaborators
Associated News Items
Publications2021Bujold PM, Ferrari-Toniolo S, Schultz W. (2021), “Adaptation of utility functions to reward distribution in rhesus monkeys. ” Cognition 214: 104764, 2021. Chi U Seak* L, Volkmann* K, Pastor-Bernier A, Grabenhorst F, Schultz W. (2021), “Single-dimensional human brain signals for two-dimensional economic choice options. ” Chi U Seak* L, Volkmann* K, Pastor-Bernier A, Grabenhorst F, Schultz W. Single-dimensional human brain signals for two-dimensional economic choice oJ Neurosci 41: 3000-3013, 2021 Ferrari-Toniolo S, Bujold P, Schultz W. (2021), “Non-human primates satisfy utility maximization in compliance with the continuity axiom of Expected Utility Theory. ” J Neurosci 41: 2964-2979, 2021 Grabenhorst F, Schultz W. (2021), “Functions of primate amygdala neurons in economic decisions and social decision simulation. ” Behav Brain Res 409: 113318, 2021. Pastor-Bernier A, Stasiak A, Schultz W. (2021), “Reward-specific satiety affects subjective value signals in orbitofrontal cortex during multi-component economic choice. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 118: e2022650118, 2021. Schultz W, Stauffer WR, Lak A, Pastor-Bernier A. (2021), “Smarter than humans: rationality reflected in primate neuronal reward signals. ” Curr Op Behav Sci 41: 51-56, 2021 2020Ferrari-Toniolo S, Bujold P, Schultz W (2020), “Compliance with the continuity axiom of Expected Utility Theory supports utility maximization in monkeys” BioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.18.953950 Grabenhorst F, Salzman CD, Schultz W. (2020), “The role of the primate amygdala in reward and decision-making. ” In: The Cognitive Neurosciences (Eds. Poeppel D, Mangun GR, Gazzaniga MS) pp 631-639, 2020. Pastor-Bernier A, Volkmann K, Stasiak A, Grabenhorst F, Schultz W. (2020), “Experimentally revealed stochastic preferences for multicomponent choice options. ” J exp Psychol: Animal Learn Cognition 46: 367-384, 2020 Stauffer WR, Schultz W. (2020), “Dopamine prediction error response reflect economic utility. ” In: The Cognitive Neurosciences (Eds. Poeppel D, Mangun GR, Gazzaniga MS) pp 587-595, 2020. Tremblay S, ... Schultz W, ... Stauffer WR, ... Wurtz RH, ... Shenoy KV, DiCarlo JJ, Platt ML. (2020), “An Open Resource for Non-human Primate Optogenetics. ” Neuron 108: 1075-1090, 2020. Vestergaard MD, Schultz W. (2020), “Retrospective valuation of experienced outcome encoded in distinct reward representations in the anterior insula and amygdala. ” J Neurosci 40: 8938-8950, 2020. 2019Al-Mohammad A, Schultz W (2019), “Let a monkey do your bidding: Reward valuation in an auction-like mechanism” BioRxiv http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2019.12.11.872564 Ferrari-Toniolo S, Bujold P, Schultz W (2019), “Probability distortion depends on choice sequence in rhesus monkeys” J Neurosci 39: 2915-2929 Grabenhorst F, Báez-Mendoza R, Genest W, Deco G, Schultz W (2019), “Primate amygdala neurons simulate decision processes of social partners” Cell Grabenhorst* F, Tsutsui* KI, Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2019), “Primate prefrontal neurons signal economic risk derived from the statistics of recent reward experience” eLife 8: e44838 Pastor-Bernier A, Stasiak A, Schultz W (2019), “Orbitofrontal signals for two-component choice options comply with indifference curves of Revealed Preference Theory” Nat Comm 10: 4885 Pastor-Bernier A, Volkmann K, Stasiak A, Grabenhorst F, Schultz W (2019), “Single-dimensional human revealed stochastic preferences for multi-dimensional economic choice options” BioRxiv http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/832881 Schultz W (2019), “Recent advances in understanding the role of phasic dopamine activity” F1000 2017Brzosko Z, Zannone S, Schultz W, Clopath C, Paulsen O (2017), “Sequential neuromodulation of Hebbian plasticity offers mechanism for effective reward-based navigation” eLife 6:e27756 Diederen KMJ, Ziauddeen H, Vestergaard M, Spencer T, Schultz W, Fletcher P (2017), “Dopamine modulates adaptive prediction error coding in the human midbrain and striatum” J Neurosci 37: 1708-1720 Pastor-Bernier A, Plott CR, Schultz W (2017), “Monkeys choose as if maximizing utility compatible with basic principles of revealed preference theory” PNAS E114: 1766-E1775 Schultz W, Stauffer WR, Lak A (2017), “The phasic dopamine signal maturing: from reward via behavioural activation to formal economic utility” Curr Op Neurobiol 43: 139-148 2016Báez-Mendoza R, Schultz W (2016), “Performance error-related activity in monkey striatum during social interactions” Sci Reports 6: 37199 Báez-Mendoza R, van Coeverden C, Schultz W (2016), “A neuronal reward inequity signal in primate striatum” J Neurophysiol 115: 68-79 Diederen K, Spencer T, Vestergaard MD, Fletcher P, Schultz W (2016), “Adaptive prediction error coding in the human midbrain and striatum facilitates behavioral adaptation and learning efficiency” Neuron 90: 1127-1138 Genest W, Stauffer WR, Schultz W (2016), “Utility functions predict variance and skewness risk preferences in monkeys” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 113: 8402-8407 Grabenhorst* F, Hernadi* I, Schultz W (2016), “Primate amygdala neurons evaluate the progress of self-defined economic choice sequences” eLife 5: e18731 Lak A, Stauffer WR, Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine neurons learn relative chosen value from probabilistic rewards” eLife 5: e18044 Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine reward prediction error signalling: a two-component response” Nat Rev Neurosci 17: 183-195 Stauffer WR, Lak A, Yang A, Borel M, Paulsen O, Boyden E, Schultz W (2016), “Dopamine neuron-specific optogenetic stimulation in Rhesus macaques” Cell 166: 1564-1571 Tsutsui* KI, Grabenhorst* F, Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2016), “A dynamic code for economic object valuation in prefrontal cortex neurons” Nat Comm 7: 12554 Zangemeister* L, Grabenhorst* F, Schultz W (2016), “Neural basis for economic saving strategies in human amygdala-prefrontal reward circuits” Curr Biol 26: 3004-3013 2015Brzosko Z, Schultz W, Paulsen O (2015), “Retroactive modulation of spike timing-dependent plasticity by dopamine” eLife 4: e09685 Diederen KMJ, Schultz W (2015), “Scaling prediction errors to reward variability benefits error-driven learning in humans” J Neurophysiol 114: 1628-1640 Hernadi* I, Grabenhorst* F, Schultz W (2015), “Planning activity for internally generated reward goals in monkey amygdala neurons” Nat Neurosci 18 Schultz W (2015), “Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data” Physiol Rev 95: 853-951 Schultz W, Carelli RM, Wightman RM (2015), “Phasic dopamine signals: from subjective reward value to formal economic utility” Curr Op Behav Sci 5: 147-154 Stauffer WR, Lak A, Bossaerts P, Schultz W (2015), “Economic choices reveal probability distortion in macaque monkeys” J Neurosci 35: 3146-3154 Vestergaard MD, Schultz W (2015), “Choice mechanisms for past, temporally extended outcomes” Proc Roy Soc B 282: 20141766, 1810 2014Bermudez MA, Schultz W (2014), “Timing in reward and decision processes.” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 369(1637):20120468 Details Medic N, Ziauddeen H, Vestergaard MD, Henning E, Schultz W, Farooqi IS, Fletcher PC (2014), “Dopamine modulates the neural representation of subjective value of food in hungry subjects” J Neurosci 34: 16877-16889 O'Neill M, Schultz W (2014), “Economic risk coding by single neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex.” J Physiol Paris Details Stauffer WR, Lak A, Schultz W (2014), “Dopamine reward prediction error responses reflect marginal utility” Curr Biol 2491-2500 2013Báez-Mendoza R, Harris C, Schultz W. (2013), “Activity of striatal neurons reflects social action and own reward. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 110: 16634-16639, 2013. Báez-Mendoza R, Schultz W (2013), “The role of the striatum in social behavior.” Front Neurosci 7:233 Details d'Acremont M, Schultz W, Bossaerts P. (2013), “The human brain encodes event frequencies while forming subjective beliefs. ” J Neurosci 33: 10887-10897, 2013. O'Neill, M, Schultz W. (2013), “Risk prediction error coding in orbitofrontal neurons. ” J Neurosci 33: 15810-15814, 2013. Schultz W. (2013), “Updating dopamine reward signals. ” Curr Op Neurobiol 23: 229-238, 2013. 2012Ariansen JL, Heien ML, Hermans A, Phillips PE, Hernadi I, Bermudez MA, Schultz W, Wightman RM (2012), “Monitoring extracellular pH, oxygen, and dopamine during reward delivery in the striatum of primates.” Front Behav Neurosci 6:36 Details Bermudez MA, Göbel C, Schultz W. (2012), “Sensitivity to temporal reward structure in amygdala neurons. ” Curr Biol 22: 1839-1844, 2012. Grabenhorst* F, Hernadi* I, Schultz W. (2012), “ Prediction of economic choice by primate amygdala neurons. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 109: 18950-18955, 2012. Miyapuram KP, Tobler PN, Gregorios-Pippas L, Schultz W (2012), “BOLD responses in reward regions to hypothetical and imaginary monetary rewards.” Neuroimage 59(2):1692-9 Details Schultz W (2012), “Risky dopamine.” Biol Psychiatry 71(3):180-1 Details 2011Hare TA, Schultz W, Camerer CF, O'Doherty JP, Rangel A. (2011), “Transformation of stimulus value signals into motor commands during simple choice. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 108: 18120-18125, 2011. Miyapuram KP, Tobler PN, Gregorios-Pippas, L, Schultz W. (2011), “BOLD responses in reward regions to hypothetical and imaginary monetary rewards.” NeuroImage 59: 1692-1699, 2011. Schultz W (2011), “Potential vulnerabilities of neuronal reward, risk, and decision mechanisms to addictive drugs.” Neuron 69(4):603-17 Details Schultz W (2011), “Potential vulnerabilities of neuronal reward, risk, and decision mechanisms to addictive drugs” Neuron 69: 603-617 Schultz W, O'Neill M, Tobler PN, Kobayashi S (2011), “Neuronal signals for reward risk in frontal cortex.” Ann N Y Acad Sci 1239:109-17 Details 2010Bermudez MA, Schultz W. (2010), “Reward magnitude coding in primate amygdala neurons.” J Neurophysiol 104: 3424-3432, 2010. Bermudez MA, Schultz W. (2010), “Responses of amygdala neurons to positive reward predicting stimuli depend on background reward (contingency) rather than stimulus-reward pairing (contiguity).” J Neurophysiol 103: 1158-1170, 2010. Burke CJ, Tobler PN, Baddeley M, Schultz W. (2010), “Neuronal mechanisms of observational learning. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 107, 14431-14436, 2010. Burke CJ, Tobler PN, Schultz W, Baddeley M (2010), “Striatal BOLD Response Reflects the Impact of Herd Information on Financial Decisions.” Front Hum Neurosci 4:48 Details Kobayashi S, Pinto de Carvalho O, Schultz W (2010), “Adaptation of reward sensitivity in orbitofrontal neurons” J Neurosci 30: 534-544 Kobayashi S, Pinto de Carvalho O, Schultz W (2010), “Adaptation of reward sensitivity in orbitofrontal neurons.” J Neurosci 30(2):534-44 Details Kobayashi S, Schultz W, Sakagami M (2010), “Operant conditioning of primate prefrontal neurons.” J Neurophysiol 103(4):1843-55 Details Nomoto K, Schultz W, Watanabe T, Sakagami M (2010), “Temporally extended dopamine responses to perceptually demanding reward-predictive stimuli.” J Neurosci 30(32):10692-702 Details O'Neill M, Schultz W (2010), “Coding of reward risk by orbitofrontal neurons is mostly distinct from coding of reward value.” Neuron 68(4):789-800 Details O'Neill M, Schultz W (2010), “Coding of reward risk distinct from reward value by orbitofrontal neurons” Neuron 68: 789-800 Schultz W (2010), “Subjective neuronal coding of reward: temporal value discounting and risk.” Eur J Neurosci 31(12):2124-35 Details Schultz W (2010), “Dopamine signals for reward value and risk: basic and recent data.” Behav Brain Funct 6:24 Details Schultz W. (2010), “Subjective neuronal coding of reward: temporal value discounting and risk. ” Eur J Neurosci 31: 2124–2135, 2010. 2009Christopoulos GI, Tobler PN, Bossaerts P, Dolan RJ, Schultz W (2009), “Neural correlates of value, risk, and risk aversion contributing to decision making under risk.” J Neurosci 29(40):12574-83 Details Gregorios-Pippas L, Tobler PN, Schultz W. (2009), “Short term temporal discounting of reward value in human ventral striatum. ” J Neurophysiol 101: 1507-1523, 2009. Tobler PN, Christopoulos GI, O'Doherty JP, Dolan RJ, Schultz W. (2009), “Risk-dependent reward value signal in human prefrontal cortex. ” Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 106: 7185-7190, 2009. 2008Fiorillo CD, Newsome WT, Schultz W (2008), “The temporal precision of reward prediction in dopamine neurons.” Nat Neurosci Details Hare TA, O'Doherty J, Camerer CF, Schultz W, Rangel A (2008), “Dissociating the role of the orbitofrontal cortex and the striatum in the computation of goal values and prediction errors.” J Neurosci 28(22):5623-30 Details Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2008), “Influence of reward delays on responses of dopamine neurons” J Neurosci 28: 7837-7846 Kobayashi S, Schultz W (2008), “Influence of reward delays on responses of dopamine neurons.” J Neurosci 28(31):7837-46 Details 2007Schultz W. (2007), “Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. ” Ann Rev Neurosci 30: 259-288, 2007. Schultz W. (2007), “Behavioral dopamine signals. ” Trends Neurosci 30: 203-210, 2007. Tobler PN, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Schultz W (2007), “Learning-related human brain activations reflecting individual finances.” Neuron 54(1):167-75 Details Tobler PN, O’Doherty JP. Dolan R, Schultz W. (2007), “Reward value coding distinct from risk attitude-related uncertainty coding in human reward systems. ” J Neurophysiol 97: 1621-1632, 2007. 2006Blatter K, Schultz W (2006), “Rewarding properties of visual stimuli.” Exp Brain Res 168(4):541-6 Details Kobayashi S, Nomoto K, Watanabe M, Hikosaka O, Schultz W, Sakagami M (2006), “Influences of rewarding and aversive outcomes on activity in macaque lateral prefrontal cortex.” Neuron 51(6):861-70 Details Schultz W (2006), “Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward” Ann Rev Psychol 57:87-115 Schultz W (2006), “Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward.” Annu Rev Psychol 57:87-115 Details Tobler PN, O’Doherty JP, Dolan, R, Schultz W. (2006), “Human neural learning depends on reward prediction errors in the blocking paradigm. ” J Neurophysiol 95: 301-310, 2006. 2005Cromwell HC, Hassani OK, Schultz W (2005), “Relative reward processing in primate striatum.” Exp Brain Res 162(4):520-5 Details Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2005), “Evidence that the delay-period activity of dopamine neurons corresponds to reward uncertainty rather than backpropagating TD errors.” Behav Brain Funct 1(1):7 Details 2004Schultz W (2004), “Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology.” Curr Opin Neurobiol 14(2):139-47 Details 2003Cromwell HC, Schultz W. (2003), “Effects of expectations for different reward magnitudes on neuronal activity in primate striatum. ” J. Neurophysiol. 89: 2823-2838, 2003. Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2003), “Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons” Science 299:1898-1902 Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2003), “Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons.” Science 299(5614):1898-902 Details Martin-Soelch C, Missimer J, Leenders KL, Schultz W (2003), “Neural activity related to the processing of increasing monetary reward in smokers and nonsmokers.” Eur J Neurosci 18(3):680-8 Details Schultz W, Tremblay L, Hollerman JR (2003), “Changes in behavior-related neuronal activity in the striatum during learning.” Trends Neurosci 26(6):321-8 Details Tobler PN, Dickinson A, Schultz W. (2003), “Coding of predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in a conditioned inhibition paradigm. ” J Neurosci 23: 10402-10410, 2003. 2002Schultz W. (2002), “Getting formal with dopamine and reward. ” Neuron 36: 241-263, 2002. 2001Hassani OK, Cromwell HC, Schultz W. (2001), “Influence of expectation of different rewards on behavior-related neuronal activity in the striatum.” J Neurophysiol 85: 2477-2489, 2001. Martin-Soelch C, Chevalley AF, Künig G, Missimer J, Magyar S, Mino A, Schultz W, Leenders KL (2001), “Changes in reward-induced brain activation in opiate addicts.” Eur J Neurosci 14(8):1360-8 Details Martin-Soelch C, Leenders KL, Chevalley AF, Missimer J, Künig G, Magyar S, Mino A, Schultz W (2001), “Reward mechanisms in the brain and their role in dependence: evidence from neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies.” Brain Res Brain Res Rev 36(2-3):139-49 Details Martin-Sölch C, Magyar S, Künig G, Missimer J, Schultz W, Leenders KL (2001), “Changes in brain activation associated with reward processing in smokers and nonsmokers. A positron emission tomography study.” Exp Brain Res 139(3):278-86 Details Schultz W (2001), “Reward signaling by dopamine neurons.” Neuroscientist 7(4):293-302 Details Suri R, Schultz, W. (2001), “Temporal difference model reproduces anticipatory neural activity. ” Neur Comput 13: 841-862, 2001. Waelti P, Dickinson A, Schultz, W. (2001), “Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. ” Nature 412: 43-48, 2001. Watanabe M, Cromwell HC, Tremblay L, Hollerman, JR, Hikosaka K, Schultz W. (2001), “Behavioral reactions reflecting differential reward expectations in monkeys. ” Exp Brain Res 140: 511-518, 2001. 2000Cavada C, Schultz W (2000), “The mysterious orbitofrontal cortex. foreword” Cereb Cortex 10(3):205 Details Hollerman JR, Tremblay L, Schultz W (2000), “Involvement of basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex in goal-directed behavior.” Prog Brain Res 126:193-215 Details Künig G, Leenders KL, Martin-Sölch C, Missimer J, Magyar S, Schultz W (2000), “Reduced reward processing in the brains of Parkinsonian patients.” Neuroreport 11(17):3681-7 Details Schultz W, Dickinson A. (2000), “Neuronal coding of prediction errors.” Ann Rev Neurosci 23: 473-500, 2000. Schultz W. (2000), “Multiple reward systems in the brain. ” Nat Rev Neurosci 1: 199-207, 2000. Tremblay L, Schultz W. (2000), “Modifications of reward expectation-related neuronal activity during learning in primate orbitofrontal cortex.” J Neurophysiol 83: 1877-1885, 2000. Tremblay L, Schultz W. (2000), “Reward-related neuronal activity during go-nogo task performance in primate orbitofrontal cortex. ” J Neurophysiol 83: 1864-1876, 2000. 1999Contreras-Vidal JL, Schultz W (1999), “A predictive reinforcement model of dopamine neurons for learning approach behavior.” J Comput Neurosci 6(3):191-214 Details Schultz W (1999), “The Reward Signal of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons.” News Physiol Sci 14:249-255 Details Tremblay L, Schultz W. (1999), “Relative reward preference in primate orbitofrontal cortex. ” Nature 398: 704-708, 1999. 1998Hollerman JR, Schultz W. (1998), “Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. ” Nat Neurosci 1: 304-309, 1998. Hollerman JR, Tremblay L, Schultz W. (1998), “Influence of reward expectation on behavior-related neuronal activity in primate striatum.” J Neurophysiol 80: 947-963, 1998. Schultz W (1998), “The phasic reward signal of primate dopamine neurons.” Adv Pharmacol 42:686-90 Details Schultz W, Tremblay L, Hollerman JR (1998), “Reward prediction in primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex.” Neuropharmacology 37(4-5):421-9 Details Schultz W. (1998), “Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. ” J Neurophysiol 80: 1-27, 1998. Suri RE, Schultz W (1998), “Learning of sequential movements by neural network model with dopamine-like reinforcement signal.” Exp Brain Res 121(3):350-4 Details Tremblay L, Hollerman JR, Schultz W. (1998), “Modifications of reward expectation-related neuronal activity during learning in primate striatum. ” J Neurophysiol 80: 964-977, 1998. 1997Schultz W (1997), “Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms.” Curr Opin Neurobiol 7(2):191-7 Details Schultz W, Dayan P, Montague RR. (1997), “A neural substrate of prediction and reward. ” Science 275: 1593-1599, 1997. Thut G, Schultz W, Roelcke U, Nienhusmeier M, Missimer J, Maguire RP, Leenders KL. (1997), “Monetary reward activates human prefrontal cortex. ” Neuroreport 8: 1225-1228, 1997. 1996Mirenowicz J, Schultz W. (1996), “Preferential activation of midbrain dopamine neurons by appetitive rather than aversive stimuli. ” Nature 379: 449-451, 1996. 1994Mirenowicz J, Schultz W. (1994), “Importance of unpredictability for reward responses in primate dopamine neurons.” J Neurophysiol 72: 1024-1027, 1994. Schultz W (1994), “Behavior-related activity of primate dopamine neurons.” Rev Neurol (Paris) 150(8-9):634-9 Details 1993Galbraith GC, Schultz W (1993), “Perceptual adaptation in the vestibulo-ocular system: EEG correlates of spatial and temporal rearrangement.” Percept Mot Skills 77(2):595-608 Details Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T, Romo R, Scarnati E (1993), “Reward-related activity in the monkey striatum and substantia nigra.” Prog Brain Res 99:227-35 Details Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T. (1993), “Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. ” J Neurosci 13: 900-913, 1993. 1992Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W. (1992), “Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions.” J Neurophysiol 67: 145-163, 1992. Romo R, Scarnati E. Schultz, W. (1992), “Role of primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex in the internal generation of movements: II. Movement-related activity in the anterior striatum. ” Exp Brain Res 91: 385-395, 1992. Romo R, Schultz W. (1992), “Role of primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex in the internal generation of movements: III. Neuronal activity in the supplementary motor area. ” Exp Brain Res 91: 396-407, 1992. Schultz W, Apicella P, Scarnati E, Ljungberg T. (1992), “Neuronal activity in monkey ventral striatum related to the expectation of reward. ” J Neurosci 12: 4595-4610, 1992. Schultz W, Romo R. (1992), “Role of primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex in the internal generation of movements: I. Preparatory activity in the anterior striatum. ” Exp Brain Res 91: 363-384, 1992. 1991Apicella P, Ljungberg T, Scarnati E, Schultz W. (1991), “Responses to reward in monkey dorsal and ventral striatum. ” Exp Brain Res 85: 491-500, 1991. Apicella P, Scarnati E, Schultz W (1991), “Tonically discharging neurons of monkey striatum respond to preparatory and rewarding stimuli.” Exp Brain Res 84(3):672-5 Details Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W (1991), “Responses of monkey midbrain dopamine neurons during delayed alternation performance.” Brain Res 567(2):337-41 Details 1990Romo R, Schultz W. (1990), “Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: Contingencies of responses to active touch during self-initiated arm movements. ” J Neurophysiol 63: 592-606, 1990. Schultz W, Romo R. (1990), “Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: Contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioral reactions. ” J Neurophysiol 63: 607-624, 1990. 1989Romo R, Schultz W (1989), “Somatosensory input to dopamine neurones of the monkey midbrain: responses to pain pinch under anaesthesia and to active touch in behavioural context.” Prog Brain Res 80:473-8; discussion 465-6 Details Schultz W, Romo R, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Jonsson G, Studer A (1989), “Saccadic reaction times, eye-arm coordination and spontaneous eye movements in normal and MPTP-treated monkeys.” Exp Brain Res 78(2):253-67 Details 1988Schultz W (1988), “MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys: mechanism of action, selectivity and pathophysiology.” Gen Pharmacol 19(2):153-61 Details Studer A, Sundström E, Jonsson G, Schultz W (1988), “Acute electrophysiological and neurochemical effects of administration of MPTP in mice.” Neuropharmacology 27(9):923-31 Details 1987Schultz W, Romo R (1987), “Responses of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons to high-intensity somatosensory stimulation in the anesthetized monkey.” J Neurophysiol 57(1):201-17 Details Studer A, Schultz W (1987), “The catecholamine uptake inhibitor nomifensine depresses impulse activity of dopamine neurons in mouse substantia nigra.” Neurosci Lett 80(2):207-12 Details 1986Schultz W (1986), “Responses of midbrain dopamine neurons to behavioral trigger stimuli in the monkey.” J Neurophysiol 56(5):1439-61 Details Schultz W (1986), “Activity of pars reticulata neurons of monkey substantia nigra in relation to motor, sensory, and complex events.” J Neurophysiol 55(4):660-77 Details Schultz W, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Tsutsumi T, Jonsson G (1986), “The catecholamine uptake blocker nomifensine protects against MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys.” Exp Brain Res 63(1):216-20 Details Schultz W, Scarnati E, Sundström E, Tsutsumi T, Jonsson G (1986), ““The catecholamine uptake blocker nomifensine protects against MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys.” ” Exp Brain Res 63(1):216-20 1985Romo R, Schultz W (1985), “Prolonged changes in dopaminergic terminal excitability and short changes in dopaminergic neuron discharge rate after short peripheral stimulation in monkey.” Neurosci Lett 62(3):335-40 Details Schultz W, Studer A, Jonsson G, Sundström E, Mefford I (1985), “Deficits in behavioral initiation and execution processes in monkeys with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced parkinsonism.” Neurosci Lett 59(2):225-32 Details Toan DL, Schultz W (1985), “Responses of rat pallidum cells to cortex stimulation and effects of altered dopaminergic activity.” Neuroscience 15(3):683-94 Details 1984Aebischer P, Schultz W (1984), “The activity of pars compacta neurons of the monkey substantia nigra is depressed by apomorphine.” Neurosci Lett 50(1-3):25-9 Details Schultz W (1984), “Recent physiological and pathophysiological aspects of Parkinsonian movement disorders.” Life Sci 34(23):2213-23 Details 1982Schultz W (1982), ““Depletion of dopamine in the striatum as an experimental model of Parkinsonism: direct effects and adaptive mechanisms.” ” Prog Neurobiol 18(2-3):121-66 1981Ruffieux A, Schultz W (1981), “[Influence of dopamine on pars reticulata neurones of substantia nigra (author's transl)].” J Physiol (Paris) 77(1):63-9 Details Schultz W, Wiesendanger R, Hess B, Ruffieux A, Wiesendanger M (1981), “The somatotopy of the gracile nucleus in cats with agenesis of a hindfoot.” Exp Brain Res 43(3-4):413-8 Details 1980Ruffieux A, Schultz W (1980), ““Dopaminergic activation of reticulata neurones in the substantia nigra.” ” Nature 285(5762):240-1 1979Schultz W, Montgomery EB Jr, Marini R (1979), “"Proximal limb movements in response to microstimulation of primate dentate and interpositus nuclei mediated by brain-stem structures.” ” Brain 102(1):127-46 1978Schultz W, Ungerstedt U (1978), “Striatal cell supersensitivity to apomorphine in dopamine-lesioned rats correlated to behaviour.” Neuropharmacology 17(6):349-53 Details Schultz W, Ungerstedt U (1978), “A method to detect and record from striatal cells of low spontaneous activity by stimulating the corticostriatal pathway.” Brain Res 142(2):357-62 Details Ungerstedt U, Ljungberg T, Schultz W (1978), “Dopamine receptor mechanisms: behavioral and electrophysiological studies.” Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 19:311-21 Details Zangger P, Schultz W (1978), “The activity of cells of nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis during spontaneous locomotion in the decorticate cat.” Neurosci Lett 7(2-3):95-9 Details 1977Allen GI, Gilbert PF, Marini R, Schultz W, Yin TC (1977), “Integration of cerebral and peripheral inputs by interpositus neurons in monkey.” Exp Brain Res 27(1):81-99 Details Hellweg FC, Schultz W, Creutzfeldt OD (1977), ““Extracellular and intracellular recordings from cat's cortical whisker projection area: thalamocortical response transformation.”” J Neurophysiol 40(3):463-79 1976Schultz W, Galbraith GC, Gottschaldt KM, Creutzfeldt OD (1976), “A comparison of primary afferent and cortical neurone activity coding sinus hair movements in the cat.” Exp Brain Res 24(4):365-81 Details Schultz W, Montgomery EB Jr, Marini R (1976), “Stereotyped flexion of forelimb and hindlimb to microstimulation of dentate nucleus in cebus monkeys.” Brain Res 107(1):151-1 Details |